El bajo peso al nacer como una lesión ateroesclerótica temprana

Vilma Fundora Álvarez, Emilio Manuel Zayas Somoza

Texto completo:

PDF

Resumen

El bajo peso al nacer (BPN) constituye un problema global de salud que suele presentarse entre el 10 – 15% de los nacimientos vivos, y que impacta particularmente a los países de bajos y medianos ingresos. El BPN puede afectar la supervivencia del niño y su posterior crecimiento y desarrollo, en especial el neurodesarrollo. El BPN es tenido hoy también como una señal temprana de ateroesclerosis ante reportes crecientes de que los niños con bajo peso suelen exhibir mayores tasas de las distintas manifestaciones de la Gran Crisis Ateroesclerótica (GCA) en la adultez, entre ellas la coronarioesclerosis y la enfermedad cerebrovascular. Asimismo, los niños con BPN podrían tener un riesgo mayor de exceso de peso y obesidad global y abdominal en edades posteriores. Igualmente, los niños nacidos con bajo peso podrían mostrar una mayor prevalencia de hipertensión arterial (HTA) y Diabetes mellitus tipo 2 (DMT2): eventos éstos agravantes de la ateroesclerosis. El seguimiento a largo plazo de los niños nacidos con bajo peso implicaría la identificación temprana y oportuna de alteraciones bioquímicas anticipatorias del Síndrome metabólico (SM) tales como estados alterados de la utilización periférica de los carbohidratos, dislipidemias e hiperuricemia. El seguimiento a largo plazo de estos niños también implicaría la detección de azotemia y albuminuria como indicadores de daño renal. El reconocimiento del BPN como una señal temprana de la ateroesclerosis haría posible entonces la intervención farmacológica y dietética adecuada, y con ello, la disminución del riesgo de eventos arteriooclusivos agudos en la adultez, todo lo cual coadyuvaría a una expectativa de vida más prolongada y una calidad de vida superior.

Palabras clave

Bajo peso al nacer; Aterosclerosis; Enfermedad cardiovascular

Referencias

Fonarow GC. The global burden of atherosclerotic vascular disease. Nature Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med 2007;4:530-1.

Herrington W, Lacey B, Sherliker P, Armitage J, Lewington S. Epidemiology of atherosclerosis and the potential to reduce the global burden of atherothrombotic disease. Circ Res 2016;118:535-46.

Barquera S, Pedroza-Tobías A, Medina C, Hernández-Barrera L, Bibbins-Domingo K, Lozano R, Moran AE. Global overview of the epidemiology of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Arch Med Res 2015;46:328-38.

Reddy KS. Cardiovascular diseases in the developing countries: Dimensions, determinants, dynamics and directions for public health action. Public Health Nutr 2002;5:231-7.

Celermajer DS, Chow CK, Marijon E, Anstey NM, Woo KS. Cardiovascular disease in the developing world: Prevalences, patterns, and the potential of early disease detection. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012;60:1207-16.

Gaziano TA. Cardiovascular disease in the developing world and its cost-effective management. Circulation 2005; 112:3547-53.

Lindholm LH, Mendis S. Prevention of cardiovascular disease in developing countries. The Lancet 2007;370(9589): 720-2.

Stone NJ. The clinical and economic significance of atherosclerosis. Am J Med 1996;101(4 Suppl):S6-S9.

Moore S, Hall JN, Harper S, Lynch JW. Global and national socioeconomic disparities in obesity, overweight, and underweight status. J Obes 2010;2010: 514674. Disponible en: http://doi:10.1155/2010/514674. Fecha de última visita: 17 de Marzo del 2018.

Barquera S, Pedroza-Tobias A, Medina C. Cardiovascular diseases in mega-countries: The challenges of the nutrition, physical activity and epidemiologic transitions, and the double burden of disease. Curr Opin Lipidol 2016;27(4): 329-44. Disponible en: http://doi:10.1097/MOL.0000000000000320. Fecha de última visita: 17 de Marzo del 2018.

Wang T, Palucci D, Law K, Yanagawa B, Yam J, Butany J. Atherosclerosis: Pathogenesis and pathology. Diag Histopathol 2012;18:461-7.

Gonzalez ER, Kannewurf BS. Atherosclerosis: A unifying disorder with diverse manifestations. Am J Health System Pharm 1998;55(Suppl 1):S4-S7.

Roth GA, Nguyen G, Forouzanfar MH, Mokdad AH, Naghavi M, Murray CJ. Global burden of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2015;132:1270-82.

Moran AE, Forouzanfar MH, Roth GA, Mensah GA, Ezzati M, Flaxman A; et al. The global burden of ischemic heart disease in 1990 and 2010: The Global Burden of Disease 2010 study. Circulation 2014;129:1493-501.

Moran AE, Tzong KY, Forouzanfar MH, Roth GA, Mensah GA, Ezzati M; et al. Variations in ischemic heart disease burden by age, country, and income: The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors 2010 study. Global Heart 2014;9:91-9.

Mukherjee D, Patil CG. Epidemiology and the global burden of stroke. World Neurosurg 2011;76(6 Suppl):S85-S90.

Grysiewicz RA, Thomas K, Pandey DK. Epidemiology of ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke: Incidence, prevalence, mortality, and risk factors. Neurol Clin 2008;26:871-95.

Criqui MH. Peripheral arterial disease-epidemiological aspects. Vascular Med 2001;6(1 Suppl):S3-S7.

Stoffers HE, Rinkens PE, Kester AD, Kaiser V, Knottnerus JA. The prevalence of asymptomatic and unrecognized peripheral arterial occlusive disease. Int J Epidemiol 1996;25:282-90.

Vega Abascal J, Guimará Mosqueda MR, Garces Hernández Y, Vega Abascal LA, Rivas Estevez M. Predicción de riesgo coronario y cardiovascular global en la atención primaria de salud. Correo Científico Médico 2015;19(2):202-11. Disponible en: http://scielo.sld.cu/scielo.php?pid=S1560-43812015000200003&script=sci_arttext&tlng=pt. Fecha de última visita: 18 de Marzo del 2018.

Seuc AH, Domínguez Alonso E, Torres Vidal RM, Varona Pérez P. Algunas precisiones acerca de la mortalidad por enfermedades cardiovasculares en Cuba. Rev Cubana Salud Púb 2011;37:19-33.

Singhal A. The early origins of atherosclerosis. En: Early nutrition programming and health outcomes in later life. Springer. Dordrecht: 2009. pp. 51-58.

McMahan CA, Gidding SS, McGill Jr HC. Coronary heart disease risk factors and atherosclerosis in young people. J Clin Lipidol 2008;2:118-26.

Hong YM. Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease beginning in childhood. Korean Circ J 2010;40:1-9.

Barker DJ, Hales CN, Fall CH, Osmond C, Phipps K, Clark PM. Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus, hypertension and hyperlipidaemia (syndrome X): Relation to reduced fetal growth. Diabetologia 1993;36:62-7.

Hales CN, Barker DJ. Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus: The thrifty phenotype hypothesis. Diabetologia 1992;35:595-601.

Vaag AA, Grunnet LG, Arora GP, Brøns C. The thrifty phenotype hypothesis revisited. Diabetologia 2012;55:2085-8.

Kannel WB, McGee DL. Diabetes and glucose tolerance as risk factors for cardiovascular disease: The Framingham study. Diabetes Care 1979;2:120-6.

Kannel WB, McGee DL. Diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors: The Framingham study. Circulation 1979;59: 8-13.

Cheung YF, Wong KY, Lam BC, Tsoi NS. Relation of arterial stiffness with gestational age and birth weight. Arch Dis Child 2004;89:217-21.

Almond D, Chay KY, Lee DS. The costs of low birth weight. Quarter J Econ 2005;120:1031-83.

UNICEF. A World Fit to the Children: Millennium development goals, special session on children documents and the convention on the rights of the children. New York: 2008.

Sutan R, Mohtar M, Mahat AN, Tamil AM. Determinant of low birth weight infants: A matched case control study. Open J Prev Med 2014:2014. Disponible en: https://www.scirp.org/html/1-1340268_43684.htm. Fecha de última visita: 16 de Marzo del 2018.

Mahumud RA, Sarker AR, Sultana M, Islam MN, Hossain MR, Hossain MG. Prevalence and associated determinants of low birth weight in developing countries: A multi-country analysis from nationwide population-based survey. En: Issues on health and healthcare in India. Springer. Singapore: 2018. pp. 21-40.

Pérez ZF, Fernández LL, Baños LL. Caracterización clínico epidemiológica del bajo peso al nacer. Rev Cubana Med Gen Int 2015;31:27-34.

Hughes MM, Black RE, Katz J. 2500-g low birth weight cutoff: History and implications for future research and policy. Mater Child Health J 2017;21: 283-9.

Ballantyne JW. The problem of the premature infant. Brit Med J 1902;1(2159):1196-200.

Ÿlppo A. Pathologisch-anatomische studien bei frühgeborenen makroskopische und mikroskopische untersuchungen mit hinweisen auf die klinik und mit besonderer berücksichtigung der hämorrhagien. Eur J Pediatr 1919;20:212-431.

Steiner M, Pomerance W. Studies on prematurity. II. Influence of fetal maturity on fatality rate 1950;6(6):872-7. Disponible en: http://doi:10.1542/peds.2012-1058. Fecha de última visita: 19 de Marzo del 2018.

Expert Group on Prematurity. Document number 27. Sixth edition. World Health Organization. Geneva: 1950.

Sternby NH, Fernandez-Britto JE, Nordet P. Pathobiological determinants of atherosclerosis in youth (PBDAY Study), 1986-96. Bull World Health Org 1999; 77:250-7.

Strong JP; for the Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth (PDAY) Research Group. Natural history and risk factors for early human atherogenesis. Clin Chem 1995;41:134-8.

de Bernabé J, Soriano T, Albaladejo R, Juarranz M, Calle ME, Martínez D, Domínguez Rojas V. Risk factors for low birth weight: A review. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2004;116:3-15.

López JI, Lugones Botell M, Mantecón Echevarría SM, González Pérez C, Pérez Valdés-Dapena D. Algunos factores de riesgo relacionados con el bajo peso al nacer. Rev Cubana Obstet Ginecol 2012; 38:45-55.

Prendes Labrada MDLC, Jiménez Alemán GM, González Pérez R, Guibert Reyes W. Estado nutricional materno y peso al nacer. Rev Cubana Med Gen Int 2001;17:35-42.

Leal Soliguera MC. Bajo peso al nacer: Una mirada desde la influencia de factores sociales. Rev Cubana Salud Púb 2008;34(1):0-0. Disponible en: http://scielo.sld.cu/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0864-34662008000100016. Fecha de última visita: 18 de Marzo del 2018.

Álvarez-Ponce V, Alonso R, Ballesté I, Muñiz M. El bajo peso al nacer y su relación con la hipertensión arterial en el embarazo. Rev Cubana Obstet Ginecol 2011;37:23-31.

Prieto-Herrera M, García C, Rubio E, Serrano J, Rodríguez N. Relación del bajo peso al nacer con la sepsis vaginal. Rev Cubana Obstet Ginecol 2011,37:162-71.

Colectivo de autores. Parto pretérmino. En: Consenso de procederes diagnósticos y terapéuticos en Obstetricia y Perinatología. Editorial Ciencias Médicas. La Habana: 2010. Pp. 463-474.

Colectivo de autores. Restricción del crecimiento intrauterino. En: Consenso de procederes diagnósticos y terapéuticos en Obstetricia y Perinatología. Editorial Ciencias Médicas. La Habana: 2010. pp 217-223.

Ministerio de Salud Pública. República de Cuba. Programa para la reducción del bajo peso al nacer. La Habana: 1998.

Eriksson JG, Forsen T, Tuomilehto J, Osmond C, Barker DJP. Early growth and coronary heart disease in later life: longitudinal study. Brit Med J 2001; 322(7292):949-53.

Walter EC, Ehlenbach WJ, Hotchkin DL, Chien JW, Koepsell TD. Low birth weight and respiratory disease in adulthood: A population-based case-control study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009;180:176-80.

White SL, Perkovic V, Cass A, Chang CL, Poulter NR, Spector T; et al. Is low birth weight an antecedent of CKD in later life? A systematic review of observational studies. Am J Kidney Dis 2009;54:248-61.

Barker DJP. The Wellcome Foundation Lecture, 1994. The fetal origins of adult disease. Proc Royal Soc London. Series B: Biological Sciences 1995;262(1363): 37-43.

Calkins K, Devaskar SU. Fetal origins of adult disease. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care 2011;41(6):158-76. Disponible en: http://doi:10.1016/j.cppeds.2011.01.001. Fecha de última visita: 19 de Marzo del 2018.

Godfrey KM. The role of the placenta in fetal programming- A review. Placenta 2002;23(Suppl):S20-S27.

Jansson T, Powell TL. Role of the placenta in fetal programming: Underlying mechanisms and potential interventional approaches. Clin Sci 2007; 113:1-13.

Hajjar I, Kotchen JM, Kotchen TA. Hypertension: Trends in prevalence, incidence, and control. Annu Rev Public Health 2006;27:465-90.

Deng AY. Genetic basis of polygenic hypertension. Human Mol Genet 2007; 16(R2):R195-R202.

Beilin LJ. Lifestyle and hypertension- An overview. Clin Exp Hypertens 1999;21: 749-62.

Kannel WB. Blood pressure as a cardiovascular risk factor: Prevention and treatment. JAMA 1996;275(20):1571-6.

Falkner B. Hypertension in children and adolescents: Epidemiology and natural history. Pediatr Nephrol 2010;25:1219-24.

Gillum RF, Elmer PJ, Prinea RJ. Changing sodium intake in children. The Minnesota Children`s Blood Pressure Study. Hypertension 1981;3:698-703.

Loggie JMH. Hypertension in children and adolescents. Hosp Pract 1975;10:81.

McNiece KL, Poffenbarger TS, Turner JL, Franco KD, Sorof JM, Portman RJ. Prevalence of hypertension and pre-hypertension among adolescents. J Pediatr 2007;150:640-4.

Jackson LV, Thalange NK, Cole TJ. Blood pressure percentiles for Great Britain. Arch Dis Child 2007;92:298-303. Disponible en: http://doi:10.1136/adc.2005.081216. Fecha de última visita: 21 de Marzo del 2018.

Musil V, Majer M, Jureša V. Elevated blood pressure in school children and adolescents- Prevalence and associated risk factors. Coll Antropol 2012;36:147-55.

Genovesi S, Giussani M, Pieruzzi F, Vigorita F, Arcovio C, Cavuto S, Stella A. Results of blood pressure screening in a population of school-aged children in the province of Milan: Role of overweight. J Hypertens 2005;23:493-7.

Sánchez Bayle M, Más A, French E. Incidencias de las variables antropométricas y del nivel socioeconómico en la tensión arterial en la infancia. An Esp Pediatr 1985;23:163-9.

Gabriel R, Martell N, Martínez M, Sacristán A, Fernández C, Mansilla PP, Fernández-Cruz A y Luque M. La presión arterial en la infancia. Estudio de Torrejón de Ardoz (Madrid). Rev Clin Esp 1987;181:123-30.

Soler MB, Gil A, Rey J. Estudio epidemiológico de la presión arterial en una población escolar. Atención Primaria 1992;9:212-4.

Elcarte López R, Villa I, Sada J, Gasco M, Oyarzabal M, Sola A; et al. Estudio de Navarra (PECNA). Prevalencia de hipertensión arterial, hiperlipidemia y obesidad en la población infanto-juvenil de Navarra. Asociación de estos factores de riesgo. An Esp Pediatr 1993;38:428-36.

Liang YJ, Xi B, Hu YH, Wang C, Liu JT, Yan YK; et al. Trends in blood pressure and hypertension among Chinese children and adolescents: China Health and Nutrition Surveys 1991-2004. Blood Pressure 2011;20:45-53.

Anand NK, Tandon L. Prevalence of hypertension in school going children. Indian Pediatr 1996;33:377-81.

Dei-Cas SA, Dei-Cas II, Dei-Cas PG, Szyrma ME, Ciencia L, Comas JP, Gomez ML, Gonzales MG, Pereira ML, Umansky AA. Estudio de la presión arterial en adolescentes de 15 años. Su relación con características antropométricas y factores de riesgo de hipertensión arterial. Arch Argent Pediatr 2000;98:161-70. Disponible en: https://www.sap.org.ar/docs/archivos/2000/arch00_3/00_161_170.pdf. Fecha de última visita: 21 de Marzo del 2018.

Oliveira RG, Lamounier JA, Oliveira AD, Castro MD, Oliveira JS. Pressão arterial em escolares e adolescentes: O estudo de Belo Horizonte. J Pediatr (Rio J) 1999; 75:256-66.

Yamamoto-Kimura L, Gutierrez AF, Méndez-Vargas R, Chávez-Mejía MT, Alba-Leonel A, Güemez-Sandoval JC. Prevalencia de tensión arterial elevada y factores de riesgo en adolescentes en el Distrito Federal. Bol Médico Hosp Inf México 1992;49:342-50.

Cervantes J, Acoltzin C, Aguayo A. Diagnóstico y prevalencia de hipertensión arterial en menores de 19 años en la ciudad de Colima. Salud Pública Mex 2000;42:529-32.

Cruz Ángeles LI, Ortiz-Hernández L. En escolares de México la presión arterial se relacionó con la masa corporal, pero no con el crecimiento pre- y post-natal. Arch Cardiol Méx 2006;76:185-96.

Suárez Rivera JJ, Álvarez González LM, Campillo Motilva R. Comportamiento de percentiles de tensión arterial asociados a factores de riesgo en escolares. Rev Cubana Med Gen Int 2004;20(2):0-0. Disponible en: http://scielo.sld.cu/scielo.php?pid=S0864-21252004000200002&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en. Fecha de última visita: 21 de Marzo del 2018.

Cabal Giner MA, Herrera Gómez V, Díaz Ramírez N, González Gutiérrez J, Arias W. Sobre las asociaciones entre la obesidad y la hipertensión arterial en escolares cubanos. RCAN Rev Cubana Aliment Nutr 2018;28:95-106.

Khang Y-H, Lynch JW. Exploring determinants of secular decreases in childhood blood pressure and hypertension. Circulation 2011;124:397-405.

Woynarowska B, Mukherjee D, Roche AF, Siervogel RM. Blood pressure changes during adolescence and subsequent adult blood pressure level. Hypertension 1985;7:695-701.

Álvarez BÁ, de Rivas Otero B, Claros NM, Otero ML. Hipertensión arterial en la infancia y adolescencia. Importancia, patogenia, diagnóstico y tratamiento. Hipertensión Riesgo Vascular 2004;21:296-310.

Rico OC; para el Grupo PrevInfad/PAPPS Infancia y Adolescencia. Prevención de la hipertensión arterial en la infancia y la adolescencia. Pediatría Atención Primaria 2008;10:669-97.

McCarron P, Smith GD, Okasha M. Secular changes in blood pressure in childhood, adolescence and young adulthood: Systematic review of trends from 1948 to 1998. J Human Hypertens 2002;16:677-89.

Lurbe E, Torro I, Rodríguez C, Alvarez V, Redón J. Birth weight influences blood pressure values and variability in children and adolescents. Hypertension 2001; 38:389-93.

Doctor BA, O’Riordan MA, Kirchner HL, Shah D, Hack M. Perinatal correlates and neonatal outcomes of small for gestational age infants born at term gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;185;652-9.

Grisaru-Granovsky S, Halevy T, Eidelman A, Elstein D, Samueloff A. Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and the small for gestational age neonate: Not a simple relationship. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007;196(4):335-e1. Disponible en: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002937806023210. Fecha de última visita: 22 de Marzo del 2018.

Barker DJ, Bull AR, Osmond C, Simmonds SJ. Fetal and placental size and risk of hypertension in adult life. Brit Med J 1990;301(6746):259-62.

Thame M, Osmond C, Wilks RJ, Bennett FI, McFarlane-Anderson N, Forrester TE. Blood pressure is related to placental volume and birth weight. Hypertension 2000;35:662-7.

Ligi I, Grandvuillemin I, Andres V, Dignat-George F, Simeoni U. Low birth weight infants and the development programming of hypertension: A focus on vascular factors. Semin Perinatol 2010; 34:188-92.

Luyckx VA, Brenner BM. Low birth weight, nephron number, and kidney disease. Kidney Int 2005;68(Suppl):S68-S77.

Woods LL, Ingelfinger JR, Nyengaard JR, Rasch R. Maternal protein restriction suppresses the newborn renin-angiotensin system and programs adult hypertension in rats. Pediatr Res 2001;49:460-7.

Ward AM, Syddall HE, Wood PJ, Chrousos GP, Phillips DI. Fetal programming of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis: Low birth weight and central HPA regulation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:1227-33.

Clark PM. Programming of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis and the fetal origins of adult disease hypothesis. Eur J Pediatr 1998;157(1 Suppl):S7-S10.

Phillips DI, Walker BR, Reynolds RM, Flanagan DE, Wood PJ, Osmond C; et al. Low birth weight predicts elevated plasma cortisol concentrations in adults from 3 populations. Hypertension 2000; 35:1301-6.

Norman M. Low birth weight and the developing vascular tree: A systematic review. Acta Paediatr 2008; 97:1165-72.

Visentin S, Grumolato F, Nardelli GB, Di Camillo B, Grisan E, Cosmi E. Early origins of adult disease: Low birth weight and vascular remodeling. Atherosclerosis 2014;237:391-9.

Schubert U, Müller M, Bonamy AKE, Abdul-Khaliq H, Norman M. Aortic growth arrest after preterm birth: A lasting structural change of the vascular tree. J Dev Origin Health Dis 2011;2: 218-25.

Wagenseil JE, Mecham RP. Elastin in large artery stiffness and hypertension. J Cardiovasc Transl Res 2012;5:264-73.

Ligi I, Simoncini S, Tellier E, Grandvuillemin I, Marcelli M, Bikfalvi A; et al. Altered angiogenesis in low birth weight individuals: A role for anti-angiogenic circulating factors. J Mater Fetal Neonat Med 2014;27:233-8.

Harder T, Rodekamp E, Schellong K, Dudenhausen JW, Plagemann A. Birth weight and subsequent risk of type 2 Diabetes: A meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol 2007;165:849-857. Disponible en: http://doi:10.1093/aje/kwk071. Fecha de última visita: 22 de Marzo del 2018.

Knop MR, Geng T-T, Gorny AW, Ding R, Li C, Ley SH, Huang T. Birth weight and risk of type 2 Diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, and hypertension in adults: A meta-analysis of 7 646 267 participants from 135 studies. J Am Heart Assoc 2018;7:e008870- e008870. Disponible en: http://doi:10.1161/JAHA.118.008870. Fecha de última visita: 22 de Marzo del 2018.

Langenberg C, Sharp SJ, Franks PW, Scott RA, Deloukas P, Forouhi NG; et al. Gene-lifestyle interaction and type 2 Diabetes: The EPIC interact case-cohort study. PLoS Med 2014;11(5):e1001647- e1001647. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001647. Fecha de última visita: 22 de Marzo del 2018.

Cho N, Shaw JE, Karuranga S, Huang Y, da Rocha Fernandes JD, Ohlrogge AW, Malanda B. IDF Diabetes Atlas: Global estimates of diabetes prevalence for 2017 and projections for 2045. Diab Res Clin Pract 2018;138:271-81.

Escobedo J, Buitrón LV, Velasco MF, Ramírez JC, Hernández R, Macchia A; for the CARMELA Study Investigators. High prevalence of diabetes and impaired fasting glucose in urban Latin America: The CARMELA Study. Diabet Med 2009;26:864-71.

Ma RC. Epidemiology of diabetes and diabetic complications in China. Diabetologia 2018;61:1249-60.

Hills AP, Arena R, Khunti K, Yajnik CS, Jayawardena R, Henry CJ; et al. Epidemiology and determinants of type 2 diabetes in south Asia. The Lancet Diab Endocrinol 2018;6:966-78.

Farsani SF, van der Aa MP, van der Vorst MMJ, Knibbe CAJ, de Boer A. Global trends in the incidence and prevalence of type 2 Diabetes in children and adolescents: A systematic review and evaluation of methodological approaches. Diabetologia 2013;56:1471-88.

Dirección Nacional de Registros Médicos y Estadísticas de Salud. Anuario Estadístico de Salud. Ministerio de Salud Pública. República de Cuba. La Habana: 2018. Disponible en: http://files.sld.cu/bvscuba/files/2019/04/Anuario-Electr%C3%B3nico-Espa%C3%B1ol-2018-ed-2019-compressed.pdf. Fecha de última visita: 22 de Marzo del 2018.

Ong KK, Dunger DB. Birth weight, infant growth and insulin resistance. Eur J Endocrinol 2004;151(3 Suppl): U131-U139.

Hofman PL, Regan F, Jackson WE, Jefferies C, Knight DB, Robinson EM, Cutfield WS. Premature birth and later insulin resistance. New Engl J Med 2004;351(21):2179-86.

Vuguin P, Raab E, Liu B, Barzilai N, Simmons R. Hepatic insulin resistance precedes the development of diabetes in a model of intrauterine growth retardation. Diabetes 2004;53:2617-22.

Liu XM, Kong J, Song WW, Lu Y. Glucose metabolic and gluconeogenic pathways disturbance in the intrauterine growth restricted adult male rats. Chinese Med Sci J 2009;24:208-12.

Maiorana A, del Bianco C, Cianfarani S. Adipose tissue: a metabolic regulator. Potential implications for the metabolic outcome of subjects born small for gestational age (SGA). Rev Diabet Stud 2007;4(3):134-46. Disponible en: http://doi:10.1900/RDS.2007.4.134. Fecha de última visita: 23 de Marzo del 2018.

Block T, El-Osta A. Epigenetic programming, early life nutrition and the risk of metabolic disease. Atherosclerosis 2017;266:31-40.

Gicquel C, El-Osta A, Le Bouc Y. Epigenetic regulation and fetal programming. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008;22:1-16.

Sinclair KD, Lea RG, Rees WD, Young LE. The developmental origins of health and disease: Current theories and epigenetic mechanisms. Soc Reprod Fertil Suppl 2007;64:425-43.

Inoue T, Kido Y, Asahara SI, Matsuda T, Shibutani Y, Koyanagi M, Kasuga M. Effect of intrauterine undernutrition during late gestation on pancreatic β cell mass. Biomed Res 2009;30:325-30.

Jimenez-Chillaron JC, Hernandez-Valencia M, Reamer C, Fisher S, Joszi A, Hirshman M; et al. β-cell secretory dysfunction in the pathogenesis of low birth weight–associated Diabetes: A murine model. Diabetes 2005;54:702-11.

Selvin E, Marinopoulos S, Berkenblit G, Rami T, Brancati FL, Powe NR, Golden SH. Meta-analysis: Glycosylated hemoglobin and cardiovascular disease in Diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 2004;141:421-31.

Pfab T, Slowinski T, Godes M, Halle H, Priem F, Hocher B. Low birth weight, a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases in later life, is already associated with elevated fetal glycosylated hemoglobin at birth. Circulation 2006;114:1687-92.

Barker DJP, Martyn CN, Osmond C, Hales CN, Fall CH. Growth in utero and serum cholesterol concentrations in adult life. Brit Med J 1993;307(6918):1524-7.

Huxley R, Owen CG, Whincup PH, Cook DG, Colman S, Collins R. Birth weight and subsequent cholesterol levels: Exploration of the “fetal origins” hypothesis. JAMA 2004;292:2755-64.

Laurén L, Järvelin MR, Elliott P, Sovio U, Spellman A, McCarthy M; et al. Relationship between birthweight and blood lipid concentrations in later life: Evidence from the existing literature. Int J Epidemiol 2003;32:862-76.

Gustafsson PE, Janlert U, Theorell T, Westerlund H, Hammarström A. Fetal and life course origins of serum lipids in mid-adulthood: Results from a prospective cohort study. BMC Public Health 2010;10(1):484-484. Disponible en: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1471-2458-10-484. Fecha de última visita: 23 de Marzo del 2018.

Valente MH, Gomes FMDS, Benseñor IJM, Brentani AVM, Escobar AMDU, Grisi SJ. Relation between birth weight, growth, and subclinical atherosclerosis in adulthood. BioMed Res Intern 2015;2015:926912-926912. Disponible en: http://doi:10.1155/2015/926912. Fecha de última visita: 23 de Marzo del 2018.

Skilton MD. Intrauterine risk factors for precocius atherosclerosis. Pediatrics 2008;121:570-4.

Barker DJP- Fetal origins of coronary heart disease. Br Med J 1995;311:171-4.

Barker DJP. Growth in utero and coronary heart disease. Nutr Rev 1996; 54(Suppl):S1-S7.

NCD Risk Factor Collaboration (NCD-RisC). Trends in adult body-mass index in 200 countries from 1975 to 2014: A pooled analysis of 1698 population-based measurement studies with 19.2 million participants. The Lancet 2016; 387:1377-96.

Abarca-Gómez L, Abdeen ZA, Hamid ZA, Abu-Rmeileh NM, Acosta-Cazares B, Acuin C; et al. Worldwide trends in body-mass index, underweight, overweight, and obesity from 1975 to 2016: A pooled analysis of 2416 population-based measurement studies in 128.9 million children, adolescents, and adults. The Lancet 2017;390(10113): 2627-42.

Acosta-Hernández ME, Gasca-Pérez E, Ramos-Morales FR, Solís-Páez F, Evaristo-Portilla G, Soto-Cid AH. Factores, causas y perspectivas de la obesidad infantil en México. Rev Méd UIS 2013;26(1):0-0. Disponible en: https://revistas.uis.edu.co/index.php/revistamedicasuis/article/view/3592. Fecha de última visita: 23 de Marzo del 2018.

Serdula MK, Ivery D, Coates RJ, Freedman DS, Williamson DF, Byers T. Do obese children become obese adults? A review of the literature. Prev Med 1993;22:167-77.

Parsons TJ, Power C, Logan S, Summerbell CD. Childhood predictors of adult obesity: A systematic review. Int J Obes 1999;23(8 Suppl):S1-S107.

Acosta Jiménez SM, Rodríguez Suárez A, Díaz Sánchez ME. La obesidad en Cuba. Una mirada a su evolución en diferentes grupos poblacionales. RCAN Rev Cubana Aliment Nutr 2013;23:297-308.

Casey PH, Bradley RH, Whiteside-Mansell L, Barrett K, Gossett JM, Simpson PM. Evolution of obesity in a low birth weight cohort. J Perinatol 2012;32:91-6.

Zarrati M, Shidfar F, Razmpoosh E, Nezhad FN, Keivani H, Hemami MR, Asemi Z. Does low birth weight predict hypertension and obesity in schoolchildren? Ann Nutr Metab 2013; 63:69-76.

Whitaker RC, Dietz WH. Role of the prenatal environment in the development of obesity. J Pediatr 1998;132:768-76.

Simmons R. Perinatal programming of obesity. Sem Perinatol 2008;32:371-4.

Parsons TJ, Power C, Manor O. Fetal and early life growth and body mass index from birth to early adulthood in 1958 British cohort: Longitudinal study. Brit Med J 2001;323:1331-5.

Kuh D, Hardy R, Chaturvedi N, Wadsworth ME. Birth weight, childhood growth and abdominal obesity in adult life. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2002; 26:40-7.

Strufaldi MW, Silva EM, Franco MC, Puccini RF. Blood pressure levels in childhood: Probing the relative importance of birth weight and current size. Eur J Pediatr 2009;168:619-24.

Lurbe E, Carvajal E, Torro I, Aguilar F, Alvarez J, Redon J. Influence of concurrent obesity and low birth weight on blood pressure phenotype in youth. Hypertension 2009;53:912-7.

Brufani C, Grossi A, Fintini D, Tozzi A, Nocerino V, Patera PI; et al. Obese children with low birth weight demonstrate impaired β-cell function during oral glucose tolerance test. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009;94:4448-52.

Oren A, Vos LE, Uiterwaal CS, Gorissen WH, Grobbee DE, Bots ML. Birth weight and carotid intima-media thickness: New perspectives from the Atherosclerosis Risk in Young Adults (ARYA) study. Ann Epidemiol 2004;14:8-16.

Jain V, Singhal A. Catch up growth in low birth weight infants: Striking a healthy balance. Rev Endoc Metab Dis 2012;13:141-7.

Fagerberg B, Bondjers L, Nilsson P. Low birth weight in combination with catch-up growth predicts the occurrence of the metabolic syndrome in men at late middle age: the Atherosclerosis and Insulin Resistance study. J Intern Med. 2004;256(3):254-9.

Roulet C, Bovet P, Brauchli T, Simeoni U, Xi B, Santschi V; et al. Secular trends in blood pressure in children: A systematic review. J Clin Hypertens 2017;19:488-97.

Hirschler V, Bugna J, Roque M, Gilligan T, Gonzalez C. Does low birth weight predict obesity/overweight and metabolic syndrome in elementary school children? Arch Med Res 2008;39:796-802.

Zhao Y, Wang SF, Mu M, Sheng J. Birth weight and overweight/obesity in adults: A meta-analysis. Eur J Pediatr 2012;171:1737-46.

Cameron AJ, Shaw JE, Zimmet PZ. The metabolic syndrome: Prevalence in worldwide populations. Endocrinol Metab Clin 2004;33:351-75.

Misra A, Khurana L. Obesity and the metabolic syndrome in developing countries. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93(Suppl):S9-S30. Disponible en: http://doi:10.1210/jc.2008-1595. Fecha de última visita: 24 de Marzo del 2018.

Alberti KG, Zimmet P, Shaw J. The metabolic syndrome- A new worldwide definition. The Lancet 2005;366:1059-62. Disponible en: http://doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67402-8. Fecha de última visita: 24 de Marzo del 2018.

Ramadhani MKG, Grobbee DE, Bots ML, Cabezas MC, Vos LE, Oren A; et al. Lower birth weight predicts metabolic syndrome in young adults: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Young Adults (ARYA)-study. Atherosclerosis 2006; 184:21-7.

Jornayvaz FR, Vollenweider P, Bochud M, Mooser V, Waeber G, Marques-Vidal P. Low birth weight leads to obesity, Diabetes and increased leptin levels in adults: The CoLaus study. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2016;15(1): 73-73. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12933-016-0389-2. Fecha de última visita: 24 de Marzo del 2018.

Xiao X, Zhang ZX, Li WH, Feng K, Sun Q, Cohen HJ; et al. Low birth weight is associated with components of the metabolic syndrome. Metabolism 2010; 59:1282-6.

Vera Maria Freitas da Silveira, Bernardo Lessa Horta. Birth weight and metabolic syndrome in adults: Metaanalysis. Rev Saúde Pública 2008;42:1-8. Disponible en: https://www.scielosp.org/article/rsp/2008.v42n1/10-18/en/. Fecha de última visita: 24 de Marzo del 2018.

Yoneda M, Ohuo H, Oki K. Westernization of lifestyle causes obesity-associated metabolic disorders in the Japanese population. J Obes Eat Disord 2016;2:24-24. Disponible en: http://doi:10.21767/2471-8203.100024. Fecha de última visita: 25 de Marzo del 2018.

Rozowski J, Castillo O, Moreno M. Effect of westernization of nutritional habits on obesity prevalence in Latin America. En: Preventive Nutrition. Nutrition and Health [Editores: Bendich A, Deckelbaum RJ]. Humana Press. New York: 2005. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-880-9_31. Fecha de última visita: 25 de Marzo del 2018.

Vanhala M. Childhood weight and metabolic syndrome in adults. Ann Med 1999;31:236-9.

Enlaces refback

  • No hay ningún enlace refback.


Bookmark and Share


Licencia de Creative Commons
Esta obra está bajo una licencia de Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial 4.0 Internacional.